The Original File

Radical enthusiast Eduardo Galeano has written several piercing literary works. One of his more exciting pieces is Faces and Masks, which embraces the history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In this work, Galeano places the reader in numerous settings. One of these is set in a Saint Louis Fair in 1899; in which Galeano tells a story of a Indian named Geronimo, being paraded as a side show at the fair. What historical context does Geronimo bring to this story of humiliation? Why does Galeano include Geronimo in his literary work of art? The answers lie in the indian himself.

Geronimo was born around 1829 in southern Arizona, when it was still a territory of Mexico. He belonged to the Chiricahua Apache tribe. For generations it was quite a massive tribe, until the Americans began invading the west in an attempt to expand their domain. Geronimo's mother, wife and children were killed in 1858 by a group of Mexican soldiers while Geronimo was in town trading. From that point on, he despised all Mexicans, and killed them whenever the opportunity arose. He was held in very high respect, almost to the point that one might mistake him for an Apache chief. Geronimo was not a chief, but rather a medicine man, as well as a great leader of the Chiricahua Apaches. Tribe chiefs would come to him for advice on matters of importance. Geronimo claimed to have a "power" that he received one day which protected him from bullets. This belief definitely had a profound effect on his fighting style, known for running towards people with guns for the sole purpose of killing them with his knife (Roberts, 46-49).

After Americans began their crusade against the Apaches and other Indians, Geronimo and his brother-in-law, Juh, a Chiracahua chief, began raiding US and Mexican forts (map), stealing ammunition and food as well as killing anyone they encountered. When the US government decided on using reservations to keep the Indians contained, Geronimo fled from his homeland along with approximately 700 other Chiricahua Apaches. He later surrendered in Ojo Caliente, New Mexico, where he was ambushed by US soldiers. However, he was later set free, but was marked with a tag that would help US soldiers to keep track of the Indians. In the 1870's, Geronimo and his followers fled from the reservation and sought refuge in the Sierra Madre, much like many of the Cuban revolutionaries. In 1883 US General Cook began a search for Geronimo and his followers. He rounded up some 327 men, many of whom were Indians who could track an Apache through the region. I wasn't until after his plan to overpower the search party failed, that Geronimo once again surrendered and settled at the White Mountain Reservation.

Things went relatively well for Geronimo until 1885, when the US government banned the Apaches from getting drunk and beating their wives. Once again, Geronimo fled, only taking 145 followers with him this time, as the Apache population was declining rapidly. They broke up into smaller groups as they traveled, in order to make their capture more difficult. Geronimo eventually grew weary of life on the run, so he again surrendered to General Cook, and fled immediately after hearing a rumor concerning plans for his hanging. This time he only took 30 Apache with him, but the flight was very short lived. He made his final surrender on September 4, 1886, this time to General Miles. Miles lied to Geronimo, promising him that he would be reunited with his family in a few days, and that the US would grant him a pardon for his actions. He also pledged that his people would be returned to a reservation in his homeland. Instead, the Chiricahua Apaches were punished severely, spending almost thirty years as prisoners of war.

Beginning around 1898, Geronimo, as a prisoner of war, was forced to take part in state fairs. It is during this humiliating time that Galeano chooses to portray him. One of the fairs that Geronimo participated in was the Saint Louis Fair, which had numerous public events and exhibitions. Many professionals displayed their talents in front of a wide audience, among them were magicians and fire eaters. That year, the fair had a Native American civilization presentation, primarily financed by the United States Department of War and the Department of Interior(Debo, 409). The presentation included a "wild west" exhibition in which the Native Americans played a very important part. In the exhibit, the promoters of the fair had picked a primary role for Geronimo, which he agreed to portray with a payment of a dollar a day. The exhibition was scheduled for May 10, 1905; and an the day before the performance, Geronimo turned down the offer, and the exhibition continued without him. This was because the United States government had promised him two things: security and publicity, none of which were ever accomplished (Debo, 409-410).

The Saint Louis Fair wasn't the only public exhibition that Geronimo participated in. Another one was the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition at Omaha, during the months of September and October, in 1898. During this exhibition a remarkable event happened, a rhetorical confrontation between Geronimo and his archrival General Mills. In the confrontation, Geronimo calls General Mills a liar, because Mills had lured Geronimo into surrender with lies. Mills admits he lied. Geronimo takes advantage of the situation and appeals to him for a return to his homeland, Arizona. When Geronimo inquired as to why he was banned from his homeland, he was told the following:

A very beautiful thought Geronimo. Quite poetic. But the men and women who live in Arizona, they do not miss you.... The acorns and pi–on nuts, the quail and the wild turkey, the giant cactus and the palo verde trees --- they will have to get along as best they can --- without you. (69)

General Mills also argued against the plea by suggesting that Arizona is more peaceful at night due to the travel ban on Geronimo. The majority of the audience sided with Mills and applauded his response.

A couple of days later, a series of events triggered panic. Geronimo and his friend were wandering outdoors on Sunday, but they were supposed to return before darkness. Geronimo was lost and didn't return. This caused worry around the town of Omaha, and the officer having authority over Indian matters was notified. Finally, the officer discovered Geronimo twenty miles outside of Omaha. When the officer and Geronimo returned, the town was filled with fear. This panic was due to stereotypical images about the Indians. They were viewed as uncivilized and violent as represented on the following headline: "GERONIMO AND NACHEE ESCAPE / APACHE MURDERERS THOUGHT TO BE ON THEIR WAY TO ARIZONA" (Debo, 406-407).

With a new attitude, Geronimo was able to capitalize on his celebrity status which he gained when he was an outlaw. He sold autographed photos to people who asked for them. Instantly, he earned money. (Debo, 417) After this first success, he basically traveled and capitalized himself on his heroic status. Even his visit to Washington D.C. was successful. People had given him a parade, and he stood near the president of the United States in front of the White House. (Debo, 419)

Even with new heroic status and fame, he couldn't achieve his goal of going back to Arizona, his homeland. In 1905, a short time before he died, Geronimo appealed to President Roosevelt to be allowed to return to his homeland, so that he could die there and be buried along with his ancestors. Of course, the President denied the request, citing that the Americans living in Arizona still had much "antagonism towards the Apache" (70). Geronimo ultimately regretted his final surrender (Debo, 420-421).

During the winter of 1905, Geronimo fell off of his horse and remained in a ditch until the next day. Seeing as how he was eighty-five years old, it is not the least bit surprising that he caught pneumonia and died a few days later.

Through these series of events, one can see how Galeano could appreciate such a man. It is evident that Geronimo possessed many of the characteristics that Galeano admired in great leaders. Geronimo's popularity for his guerrilla raids against Mexican and US troops, his non-conformist style, and brutal war tactics gained Galeano's respect (Voget, 1). These Apache tribes were the last of the rebels, the non-conformists, the beasts that would not be tamed. Here was a man that was on the same wave length as Galeano. They both wanted revolution and their freedom returned. Galeano and Geronimo also possessed a common enemy: the United States. Geronimo's life was one of revolution and cause. He was fighting for freedom and independence from the US. Galeano also desires independence from the US for his "America." Further, Geronimo also used guerrilla tactics to fight his oppressors. Guerrilla warfare was the main style of fighting used by revolutionaries that Galeano supported. Even the ideas of returning to the mountains for better isolation and protection is seen to be utilized by Castro, who has influenced Galeano.

Eduardo Galeano in his Faces and Masks, was honoring a great warrior who fought to the very end. By showing his readers the humiliation that Geronimo faced, he spawned a greater urge to revolt. Geronimo was a great example of an early revolutionary.

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