A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE MANAGEMENT PARALEL TO EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOR OF MANAGEMENT AT SELECTED LEVELS IN THE ORGANIZATIONS AS PERCEIVED BY THEMSELVES AND MANAGEMENT A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School of Management Madison University _________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Management ______________________ By Veronica A-Roberson March 20, 2003 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v VITA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 6 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 7 Limitations of the Study Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Management Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Therories OF Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Situational Therories 26 Management Behavior Theories Interactional Therories 47 Perceptions 63 III. METHODOLOGY 65 Design 65 Subjects 66 Population 66 Sample 66 Instrument 68 Reliablility 72 Validity 76 Hypotheses 79 Procedure 80 Data Analysis 82 IV. Findings 87 Overview 87 Section One 89 Section Two 94 Section Three 102 Section Four 105 Section Five 107 Section Six 111 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 112 Overview 112 Summary 114 Purpose and Significance of the Study 115 Procedure of the Study 116 Findings of the Study 117 Conclusions 127 Recommendations 127 References 142 Appendices 152 A. Statement of Policy from California State University of Dominquez Hills Granting Permission 153 B. Managers Behavior Description Questionnaire 154 C. Modified Version of the Managers Behavior Description Questionnaire 155 D. Scoring Key 166 E. Interview Guide 168 F. Cover Letters 170 G. Biographical Information Sheet 173 H. Subscale Means and Standard Deviations 175 This dissertation, written by Veronica A-Roberson Under the guidance of a Faculty Committee, the proposal has been submitted to Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF MANAGEMENT Date 3-20-03 Faculty Committee DR. M. R Mousighi Chairman Preface Within the preface of this dissertation , Organizations are composed of individuals. In order to operate an organization with proficient. The skills of the staff within the organization must be horned. Organizational communication has become an important area of concern in both management and employee satisfaction in business as a whole. University, for example, communication and business programs are essential to a thriving organization. You take university, they are the proto type of future organizations, their position is to put management programs in place as well as train student to full fill position throughout the business system. Systems of organizations are bridged together inadvertantly, they are salient to the survival of their counterpart. The field of business has increased in important. The ability to communicate within an organization is one of the major attributes that an individual can acquire. Success in the organization demands good communication. Organizations are changing at such a rapid rate that management must adjust and mediate within the organizational environment through communication. The most critical factor in organizational effectiveness remains the individual who has developed skills in communication. Unlike other organizational communication, this information will focus on individual behavior rather than on organizational structure. The information will deal with how individuals should communicate. However, the material will touch on how important contexts of good management skills are in efficient communication. Nonetheless the stress is on the individual communicating effectively within those contexts. While the individual must understand the relevant dimensions of organizational life. My endeavor is to assist employees in understanding the communication requirements associated with those dimensions. Examples and illustration drawn from daily bureaucratic life. Each segment has three cases that present real situation as case studies. The cases are followed by guideline for analysis that provide a structure for review and discussion the cases, along with the practical examples within each segment, are intended to enable the viewer to apply the content material to "real life" organizations. The organization or this material is as follows. Part one introduces the reader to communication and to organizations. A new chapter dealing with recent developments in management theory has been included in part one. In part two, communication is separated in specific person-to-person skills: listening, interviewing, participating in small groups, and managing through leadership, part three develops the planning and leader processes that are the foundation for effective public communication. Written communication is the focus on part four. Part five deals with improving communication through training, as one who has observed the field for several years, the importance of feedback and recognition, and the growth of technology in the workplace is astounding. Much of what I know about management within the organization has been hands on, working within the infra structure. MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES Chapter 1 What an Organization Is An organization is a social system established to carry out a purpose. It consists of a number of people in a pattern of relationships. The pattern is not entirely dependent on a particular person who belong to the organization at a given time. The organization assigns a position to each of its members, and the incumbent of a position has a set part to play in the organization's concert. Every organization has a program and a set of planned activities that can go well or badly. If they consistently go well, the organization thrives. If theygo badly, it disappears or is restructured for another try. The manager of an organization is the person who has the primary responsibility for making its activities go well. An organization a program always involves considerably more than one central activity. Whether the central activity is a production process, a game, a fight or a ceremony, the organization must also maintain its internal structure, keep its employees happy, and adapt to changes in the external environment. In addition, the manager of any organization has a personal problem of establishing authority, In discussing problems, we will view the situation first, since unless the manager can keep the right to manage, the other parts of the managerial assignment quickly become irrelevant. The first chapter is about understanding Organizations and their synergistic affect on one another. It does the organization little good, however, for the manager to establish authority unless that authority is used to hold the organization together and achieve its purposes. Holding the organization together does not imply that all employees of the organization will have identical goals and agree about how to achieve them, but it does require them to agree sufficiently for the organization to pursue its collective goals in a unified way. This limited agreement results from continuous communication up. Down, and sideways within the organization. Most of this communication foows through established channels, formal or informal, and is modified in predictable ways by these channels. All this is discussed in the second chapter, "Communication." However, communication is not an end in itself. It is a means of getting the organization's job done, which is of course, what management is all about. A manager is someone who supervises the work of others and can, by his or her own actions, increase or diminish their productivity. In practice, there are two quite different modes of supervision direct and indirect, and they call for somewhat different strategies. In addition to the problem of routine supervision, there are all sorts of special problems that appear in any division of labor and interfere with the efficiency or the effictiveness of a work group. These situations are considered in the productivity area. The belief that productivity and morale are necessarily correlated is part of the folklore of organization. Like most folklore, it contains a grain of truth, Sudden increases in productivity are likely to stimulate short-ter improvements of morale, and vice versa. But the general relationship between productivity and morale is more complex. As empirical studies in diverse types of organization have shown, high morale often accompanies low productivity, and crises of morale may be brought about by rising productivity. There is always some significant relationship be tween the output of and organization and emotions of its members, but the relationship is for too intricate to suggest that productivity and morale are interchangeable. The managerial policies that sustain morale are decribed in "Morale." No organization, however limited its goals, can safely ignore the larger social systems from which it draws its people and its resources. Every organization endeavors to control the external environment, but no matter how large, rich, or sacred it becomes, it cannot develop any real immunity to changes in the external environment. Some of these external changes are attributable to the organization's own activities; some results from long-term trends and can be anticipated in a general way; some are so surprising that they cannot be imagined until they have actually occurred. In a complex, modern society, this last category is nearly inexhaustible. The unanticipated effects of legislation, technology, political upheavals, moral fashions, migration and other forms of mobility; innovations in transportation communication, entertainment; the movement of prices, and the fluctuation of scarcities now guarantee a fairly adventurous history to even the most insulated and reclusive organizations, such as craft union and boarding schools. The problems that arise s this way cannot be as neatly resolved as some of those discussed other arenas. Management Principles All human organizations resemble each other so closely that much of what is learned by managing one organization can be applied to managing any other organization. Every organization, for example, has a collective identity; a roster of employees, friends, and antagonists; a program activity and a schedule time to go with it ; a table or organization; a set of formal rules partly contradicted by informal rules; procedures for adding and removing members; utilitarian objects used for organizational tasks; symbolic objects used in organizational rituals; a history; a special vocabulary; some elements of folklore; a territory; and a method of placing members within that territory according to their relative importance. Every organization has a division of labor that allocates specialized tasks to it members and a status order that awards them unequal shares of authority, honor, and influence. Every organization except the very smallest is a cluster of sub-organizations of varying sizes, which are organizations in their own right and have all of the features stated above. Some sub-organizations are departments of the parent organization; some are illegitimate factions of it; some are formally independent of it, like a union local in a factory or attached to it temporarily, like an orchestra hired for a club dance. The important thing to remember about sub-organizations is that their goals are never completely compatible with the goals of the parent organization. It is seldom possible to reform a sub-organization for the benefit of the parent organization without encountering resistance. On the other hand, it is quite impossible to manage a large organization without occasional offendin, damaging, or destroying some of its sub-organizations. The problemof managing a large organization are similar to the problems of managing a large organization are similar to the problems of managing a small or medium-sized organization, if only because every large organization is run by a managerial oligarchy which is itself a small organization there isno other way to do it. Problems of communication, data retrieval, and public relations are necessarily more complex in a large organization, but there are more people to help with them too. Running a large organization should not require more of your time and effort than running a small organization. If it does, something is probably wrong with the way your job is set up or with you personal style. During any given interval in an organization's history, it will be growing, stable, or declining. Some organizations. Such as business corporations, normally strive for growth but do not always achieve it. Somne, such as exclusive clubs, attempt to avoid either growth or decline. Other, such as legislatures and baseball teams, have a fexed numer of member although the number of assistants and and supernumeraries can vary. Sill other, such as social movements past their peak, continue to operate for long periods of time while decling in size. The task of management is easiest in a growing organization because growth itself whatever its real cause is usually viewed as a sign of managerial success and because the input of new resources occasioned by growth can be used to pay for mistakes. Managing a stable organization is a more difficult task and calls for a finer adjustment of means and ends. Careful decision-making, and alertness to the external environment. The management of a declinging organization may be easy or hare, depending upon whether the decline is regarded as inevitable. In the face of an inevitable decline, standards of managerial performance may be low. In the case of a decline that is regarded as reversible, the task of the manager is always difficult and sometimes impossible. Most organizations find it harder to satify one of their goal than others, for reason beyond their control, When this is the case, the manager's success with the critical goal is the thing that matters, while the achievement of other goals is overlooked or taken for granted. Maintaining authority is critical, for example, in a prison or penitentiary; maintaining employees is what counts in a civic association; as director of a summer camp you are judged almost exclusively by whether you can keep up morale; as coach of a football team that can win all its games you need not worry about much else. Every type of organization tends to develop managers who are overspecialized in the accomplishment of one assignment and who minimize their their other responsigilities until this neglect catches up with them in the shape of rebellion, schism, bankruptcy, or reform by outsiders.. Many organizations develop crises is a situation in which the priorities of management are forcibly rearranged by some unforeseen combination of circumstances. The qualities that you, as manager, are called upon to display in a crisis may be quite different from those routinely required. Our system is build up of many micro situation that mushroom into macro situation: College presidents are called on for personal courage, prison wardens are asked top show Christian charity, long-term planners are compelled to make snap decisions. Skill and luck play equal parts in the management of crisis. The skill can be practiced, but not the luck, so that why a few well-handled major crises may strengthen an organization and its leadership, a long series of crises will almost certainly ruin it. If you, as a manager, perceive your role as " putting out fires," then you are a poor manager and ought to be replaced by someone who attaches more importance to fire prevention. The fundamental procedures for preventing organizational crises are early detection and the rehearsal of drills that transform crises into routine problems. Not only does the crises transform our world and our envolvement with many organization, our world will be forever bridged to the many organizations we encounter daily. Understanding the Organization The question comes to mind as such for answers to theory x: are individuals motivated to work. Or instead, theory y: are individuals forced to work? Individuals are literally, forced to work in order to survived. A job enable individuals to live out the American dream. However, if given a chance to work from the vantage point of our strengths as well as our passion, everyone will be motivated to work, motivation stem from passion. I advocate that we find our passion and enjoy life's cycle, fortunately, because, for the rest of our lives, we will be involved with many types of organizations. Consider a day in the life of my daughter, Monica Williams, a young lady who could be your next-door neighbor. Monica's clock radio wakes her up with the latest news at 5 A. M. The news is being broadcast by a radio station organization. While Monica is pouring the milk in her oatmeal, she receives a telephone call, In using the telephone, Monica is interacting with a system developed and operated by a public utility organization. Monica realizes that she is running late, she dress hurriedly and dashes out to meet her car pool,., Designed to meet the needs of its members, the car pool is also an organization. Monica and her co-workers arrive on time at the hospital where they are employed. The hospital, too, is an organization. In fact, the hospital is really many organizations in one. Monica's department, quality control, functions very much like a small, self-contained organization… The hospital contains about hundreds of other departments that also function as separate organizations. All of these separate units, however, belong to the larger organization-the hospital. After a long day, eight hours in the hospital, Monica comes home in the car pool. She suggests to her husband that that they go out to a restaurant for dinner.. The restaurant is run as an organization that exists to feed its customers. After dinner Monica and her husband head for the bowling lanes, where their league is playing in a tournament. The bowling league is another organization created to serve the recreational needs of bowlers. Monica's league wins the tournament. They decide to celebrate by stopping by the local tavern for a bear. The tavern is another recreational organization. After the second bear, Monica's husband suggests that they go home to the kids. The Williams, operate as an organization. Any typical family functions very much like the many organizations Monica has been involved with, directly or indirectly, during her routine day. In almost every social encounter, we are influenced by one or more organization. Organizations enable us to achieve many of our goals. We earn our living, enjoy our recreation. Received an education and worship through organization. Nonetheless, we will focus on the communication behavior demonstrated by the employees of organization. How do individual communicate in the organization? What types of communication skills are important for effective participation in the organization? Communication may be defined as the sending and receiving of information among individual. It involves the spoken word and the written word as well as the nonverbal aspects of information sending. In considering three communication skills: speaking, writing, and listening. Firt, we will examine the nature of organizations and their impact upon humans. Second we will learn what organizations are. Next, we will discuss the thins that organizations have in commin. Finally, we will study the things that organizations routinely do. This treatment of the nature of organizations. Is intended to provide you with clear understanding of the way in which organizations operate. You need to know this before you can develop communication skills for the use of in organizations. WHAT ARE ORGANIZATIONS? Organizations are unique. In this part we are going to learn why. Let us examine some of the most important characteristics of the organization. To Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson communication would include: all of those processes by which people influence one another…this definition is based on the premise that all actions and events have communication aspects, as soon as they are perceived by a human being…and that such perception changes the information which an individual possesses and therefore influences him. Organizations are Dynamic Like human beings, organizations are dynamic. They are ongoing, ever-changing, constantly forced to meet new challenges, they are continual adapting to rapidly varying conditions in their environment. For example, consider the situation of the private liberal arts college in the United States. Private Colleges have traditionally b been identified as schools for the rich, on the other hand, public colleges and universities have been seen as middle-class schools, where families of moderate income could afford to send their children. However, as economic condition have changed, many private colleges have had to make drastic changes to stay in business. Costs associated with higher education have risen rapidly. Private colleges have tried to attract applications from less affluent students. They have suggested that the bright, capable, middle-class young student with some help from the family, a part-time job on campus, and a partial scholarship can probably afford to attend a private college, In short, they have had to appeal to new constituencies in order to survive. In addition, the public colleges, have found themselves enrolling many students from affluent families, because these families no longer had enough money to send their children to the best private colleges. As economic conditions fluctuate, the rules for these organizations have changed. To survive, they must be dynamic enough to adapt. Otherwise, they will probably find themselves out of business. There are three ways in which organization must remain dynamic, changing markets, changing technologies, and changing economy. Changing markets, Organizations must be dynamic enough to meet changing markets. Since most organizations market some type of product or service, they must be sensitive to their potential customers' changing attitudes and predispositions. If thered is no market for the organization's product or services the organization will not survive. Changing Technologies, For an organization to be successful, it must be able to accomplish a particular job. This job is called its task. The methods that an organization uses to accomplish its task are called technologies. Technologies change drastically over very brief periods of time. Consider the way in which and organization pays its employees. Up until a few years ago, payroll was a major job of the bookkeeping department. Numerous clerks and bookkeepers would work many hours to insure that payroll checks were properly recorded and dispersed. However, sophisticated programs now exist that enable an organization to disperse and record payroll by computer.. This frees many hours for employees to work on other task. Changing economy All organizations need financial resources to remain in business. Therefore, economic conditions are a crucial influence on the operations of the organization. Organizations must pay attention to almost every facet of the economy.. The availability of money for expansion, resources to use as raw materials, and the cost of labor all play an important role in the development of the organization. In or society, most things cost something. To be able to exist, the organization must be prepared to pay whatever it takes to stay in operation. The family organization that cannot meet its financial obligation must file for bankruptcy just like the large corporation in the same situation. Organizations must remain dynamic to adjust to changing financial conditions. Organizations informs Organizations are designed to inform. All organizations need information to survive. It is by exchanging information that one part of an organization learns about the duties and activities of another aspect of the organization. Organization can be thought of as information processing unit. Unfortunately, without exchanging information, organizations do not have the know-how to change raw materials into final products or services into what makes the individual or group survive the task. What exactly is meant by the phrase exchange of information? Consider the case of a typical college fraternity. This fraternity has a number of subgroups called standing committees. Each standing committee operates more or less autonomously. However, for the fraternity to function effectively, each standing committee must share its information with the others. This can be done in several ways.. Perhaps all of the chairs have a weekly meeting to report on their respective committees' activities. Perhaps information is transferred during the regular fraternity meetings. Perhaps the committee members compare notes informally during class and at other fraternity activities. As the standing committees share information, support, and complete with each other, important relationships develop among them. Without these relationships among subgroups, organizations cannot be successful. The maintenance of these relationships depends on the mutual exchange of information. It is equally important for the organization to obtain information from its environment. Important events that occur outside are crucial to the infra structure operation of the organization. If an organization needs capital to build a new factory but cannot get it because the economy is tight, dilemmas develop. If an organization continues to make a product that no one buys or provides a service no one subcribe to.because it has been declared illegal, that organization cannot continue to operate. If an organization depends on a particular skill to make its produce, and if people who possess this skill are not available in the labor marketplace, the organization will suffer. To prevent situations such as these from accruing, the organization must acquire information that exist in the environment and transmit it internally. If it has no member who can do this, the organization will find itself in a serious situation.. The communication skills of members perception, listening, planning. Organizing, and presenting are all essential to the organization. It is crucial to know that that the transfer of information within the organization and among organizations and its environment is also vital to the health of the organization. What is an Organization Organization are groups of people who associate together for a common purpose. This is what distinguishes organizations from other social phenomena. Any Group of people who coordinate their behavior to achieve a goal may be said to be operating as an organization. Most organizations exist to do a particular thing. Public speaking organizations exist to train individuals to speak and communicate more effectively. Service organizations exist to provide a service to those who need it. Religious organizations exist to promulgate their own brand of gospel. Therefore, the goal of an organization is the thing that the organization exists to do. In order to achieve its goal, the organization behaves in ways that will most effectively be conducive in achieving its goal. All employees in the organization share a concertive effort in achieving the organizations' objective; all employees or the organization share the same goal for that organization; everyone agrees as to which behaviors will be conducive to achieve that goal; and everyone is motivated to behave consistently with the goal.. I someone disgree about the appropriateness of the goal or the most viable method for achieving it, situation will occur. The employees must perceive an importance of the goal before they will work diligent to achieve it. In many cases, employees are counterproductive to the organization goal, example, if a worker thinks that his organization is polluting the environment may believe that his work is injurious to other people. Consequently, this worker may spend his time avoiding his job as much as possible, which is a hinderance to the organization objective (s). STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION Every organization have rules these rules are called structure. Structure enables the organization to standardize work procedures and to specialize the tasks associated with the production processes. The organization is put in place to help the organization in doing its job well. However, sometimes the structure, of the organization comes in conflict with the good of the individual. As individuals gain new talents and new sophistications, they become increasingly valuable to the organization.. It is sound management practice to try to keep these people. The secretary who is hired primarly as a clerical worker but eventually gains a management position is helping not only herself or himself, but the organization as well. As its people grow, so grows the organization. Sometimes organizations try to foster and encourge this growth through training programs and promotional opportunities. Other times, individuals themselves gailn knowledge and expertise without official sanction. An example would be the first-lin supervisor who returns to college to earn a degree in management and becomes one the organizations top managers. As a manager this employee is more valuable to the company. Structure within an organization is conducive to the organization controlling its own destiny. Communication skills play as important role in the development and growth of human resources. Supevisors and managers must be able to take the opportunities for growth. They must also be willing to tell their subordinates about the opportunities for career advancement. In addition, this information must be transmitted in such a way that it is understandable to organizational personnel superiors must instill the ilmportance and relevance of the growth opportunities to them as well as the organization. TASK EXPERTISE An organization is viewed as a series of structured tasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve its purpose. These tasks, in many cases, are all interrelated. Example, a baseball team is an organization with a purpose to win. For the team to win, certain task must be done. For example, there must be a strong pitching. Infact, thils particular task may be subdivided even further, There must be both stron left-handed and strong right-handed pitching. There must also be a good infield and a strong outfield, There must be a good catcher.. t my grandsons (Shelton Waters, and Shannon Rice) plays in a little league baseball teams. The team must be strong on defense (catching the ball) and strong on offense (hitting the ball). Even if the team is strong on the field, success will come only if it is equally stron in the dugout. There must be a good bench player, also, ready to replace the regulars on the field, A group of dependable relief pitchers is necessary, should the starters falter. Avove all, there must be good management. Some one individual must be responsible for inserting players, changing pitchers, and so forth. If any one task in this organization breaks down, the team will not winl This analogy holds for just about every organization. Generally, it is people who perform the tasks in an organization. However, because people have thoughts, attitudes, and feelings, they sometimes fail to accomplish their tasks. Tasks are accomplished when people know what to do and want to do. Occassionally and individual will kno what to do but will want to do it. For instance, a baseball player may know how to play center fiend well, but because he believes he is underpaid, hemay not want to do the job. Sometimes the opposite also happens an individual may want to do the job but does not know how. Methoporically, it might be possible to call up a player from the minor leagues who sincerely wants to play center field, But he may not have the skill to do the job. Unfortunately, both lack of dire and lack of talent can prevent tasks in organizations from being accomplished. However, it is fortunate, that organization can develop training programs to give the individual expertise in a particular task. Communication skills play a vital role in developing task expertise. Tood communication skills help trainers to explain methods and techniques clearly. These skills also help trainers to understand and apply what they hear in training programs. The situation of motivation is a more difficult one. Here communication enables the organization to explain to individuals why they should accomplish the task. Ilnformation about the potential rewards of accomplishing a task can also be communicated. This, too, may increase motivation COMMITMENT As you may have encountered, Organizations often as and sometimes expect contributions "above and beyond the call of duty." Consider the case of the business executive who will spend eighteen hours working on a report, the minister who spends five nights a week calling on the sick, or the college professor who spends every weekend in his study working on a textbook. These are examples of the kind of devotion that some people bring to their organizations. As one rises in the hierarchy, the organization increasingly begins to expect( and sometimes even demand) this kind of commitment. People render it for a variety of reason. Some people truly love their job and would rather work than do anything else. Some people want to get ahead and see this kind of commitment as a way of doing so. Some people see their own personal goals as being linked to those of the organization, so that by giving this kind of commitment, they are really working for themselves. Communication skills are important in developing commitment. Managers must offer reasons why subordinates should be committed. Information about the benefits of commitment should be exchanged. As people perceive the rewards of commitment, they may well begin to demonstrate it. ENERGY AND CONTROL As we know, organization, like people. Need energy to function effectively. And on the other hand, the organization need control. As we have seen, the organization is always changing. This does not mean that the change is always random. There may well be an element of random change. But normally change will be controlled and planned. One of management's main jobs is to control and direct human behavior. People sometimes demonstrate random energy, and this may have to be controlled. But the mechanical energy of an organization must be controlled as well. Organizations that can control energy can sometimes initiate change before they are forced to do so by existing conditions. These organizations are said to be proactive, able to control their own destiny A proactive organization is a leader in its fields. ORGANIZATIONS CULTURE Many organizations develop their own cultures. Stories, anecdotes, and social histories of an organization constitute its culture. We are exposed to a company's culture when we go to work for it. Others who are already working there tell us how to function, who to "watch out for," and "the lowdown on the really nice things about working here>" These are all culture phenomena. Often an organization's storied past will influence how it functions. Apple computer, for years, was known as a counterculture organization because it was started by two young men in a garage in Northern California. Now, under a new but traditional management team, the counterculture tag is part of Apple's "acient History." Organizations with long and colorful histories will probably be different in climate from those that are young. Regardless of the content, organizations do develop cultures. The communication of the culture of the organization takes place through both written and oral channels. Such devices as annual reports and pamphlets detail; but the primary means of transmission takes place orally. Because an organization does not usually want to commit negative aspects of its culture to writing, the written culture is sanitized. Through word-of-mouth, however, much gets communicated. We learn about the culture of an organization through listening to what people are saying. The better our listening skill, the more proficient we become in monitoring and absorbing culture the better communicators we become. Nonetheless, culture do exist and they certainly influence the "feel" of the organization and how employees communicate with one another. People in organizations are often called upon to make public presentations in front of groups. This public communication takes many forms. A manager will be called up to welcome new employees… A teacher will discuss a new curriculum proposal with a group of colleagues. A department head will have to defend the department's budget to a board of directors. All of these situations require the communicator to demonstrate good presentational skills. Presentational skills are important in organizational communication. Normally, a member of an organization will communicate in dyads and small groups more often than in public situation. However, when the member is called upon to make that public presentation, it is usually in a formal setting with a large audience, Sometimes many attitudes will be formulated or changed as a result of the presentation. However, it is important to develop and refine one's public communication skill. Definitions of communication Those processes by which people influence one another…this definition is based on the premise that all actions and events have communicative aspects, as soon as they are perceived by a human being such perception changes the information which an individual possesses and therefore influences him. Leadership by communication involves using, or attempting to use, all of the channesl of communication, trying to keep open all of the avenues of interaction between oneself and one's subordinates. Such terms as "openness," mutual trust," "respect," supportiveness," and "honesty" characterize this form of leadership. Communication is reciprocal. The sender adapts the messae to meet the needs of the receiver, as the sender interprets those needs. The leader and the subordinate also have a reciprocal relationship. The leader depends on the subordinate for effort, for information, and for loyalty. The subordinate depends on the leader for information, for support at appraisal and pay raise time, and for expertise. Each meets the other's needs through communication. When communication channelare closed, little can be done to develop compliance to the organization's goals. Confdence is closely related to McGregor's Theory Y assumptions. For leadership by communcation to take place. Both the leader and the subordinate must make assumptions of mutual confidence and trust. The leader must assume that the subordinate will follow through on his or her duties. The subordinate must assume that the boss will act fairly. Empathy is closely related to the concept of confidence. Empathy is the ability to understand and identify with another person's motives. It is the ability to recognize the various pressures and expectations placed on the other person. Of course, only when people are willing to share can others recognize these pressures and expectations. Some degree of self-disclosure is a necessary component in a superior-subordinate relationship if empathy is to be developed. Communication is more than just sound, perhaps you are one of those people who judge the effectiness of a communication solely on the basis of how the speaker sounds. Lets hope you will change your method of evaluation. Delivery is an important component of good communication, but it is less important than some of the other topics we have considered in this paper. Some common pitfalls in delivery is delivering a presentation is not a skill one acquires overnight. It takes time and a great deal of practice. There are a few classic pitfalls that inexperienced communicators seem to fall into. "And ah" transitions words. Some nervous communicators are under the impression that they must constantly fill up the airways with sounds. They string their words and phrases together with "and 'ahs." When an entire speech is connected with to many and it becomes one long paragraph. No one would string together written sentences like this, but people often do it when they speak. There is nothing wrong with pausing and letting the airways clear up once in a while. By avoiding the use of and you will make your presentation flow much more smoothly. Mumbling. Nervous communicators also occasionally fall into the habit of mumbling. Some mumblers go so fast that it is difficult to understand them. Other mumblers will neglect to pronounce all of the syllables of their words. If you mumble, you audience will have difficulty focusing on your message. Pacing. Walking around in front of the audience is another common mistake. There is nothing wrong with a littleactivity, but when it becomes excessive, it can create problems. In your own experience you may have noticed a speaker who paces back and forth in front of you. The pacing was for no apparent reason; it was just a nervous mannerism conveying tension from speaker to audience. Your movements should support your message. If they do not, they are unnecessary and should be avoided. Such organization as Toastmaster International, one of the largest organization in the world will assist you in honing your communication skills with confidence. Organizations such as Toastmaster public speaking organization is in place to assist you in communicating in any desired setting. Written communication is as important as oral communication. Sound writing is the essence of a good presentation. All of the principles of good communication have at least some application to writing. Many of the following ideas have been introduced elsewhere in this book. Here they are reexamined as they pertain to written communication. Other ideas are new. All will help you to improve your writing abilities. The reader will interpret a piece of writing according to his or her personal experience. People will read information from the perspective of their own experience. The two most important components of this background are the situation and the personality of the reader. Consider the following memorandum from a sales manager to employees: Each Employees will of sales will interpret this memorandum according to his perception of his own immediate situation. If one sales person has noticed some of his colleagues missing appointments or getting started late in the day, he will interpret the memorandue to mean that ehe boss is trying to crack down on the others in the department. If one salesman's territory is so far away from the home office, where the memorandum at all. To him, it is not communication, especially if he has been meeting the quota and making sales appointments. If for some good reason , such as sickness or family problems, one salesman has missed quota for the last month, he may assume that the manager's appointments. If for some good reason, such as sickness or family problems, one salesman has missed quota for last month, he may assume that the manaer's memorandum is intended specifically for him. As he reads it, he may conclude that the supervisor is coming down on hem unfairly. This may eventually hinder his work performance. He may become so upset that he stops trying even to meet quota. In all three cases, one simple, three-sentence memo has done more harm than good, because people place their own interpretations on what they read. It is impossible for the writer to foresee every possible interprtation. However, good writer examine work for ambiguities. When they find one, they do their best to remove it. This will reduce, through it cannot completely prevent, misinterpretation. Writing does not provide the opportunity for immediate feedback, so the writer should explore ways to generate reader reaction. Wememtioned that oral communication provides a sense of give-and t-take between the sender and the receiver. This is not true of written communication, because the receiver will often read it out of the presence of the sender. If feedback does come, it is often so delayed that the writer cannot judge the initial impact of his or her message on the reader. One of the most critical failures in organizational communication occurs when administrators fail to respond to a proposal or a written idas generated by someone in the organization. If you have a sound idea bout ways to improve worker productivity in your unit, you are encouraged in most organizations to write it down for consideration. But if you never get a response to your suggestion, you may never make another suggestion again. This is a waste of enthusiasm and talent. It is one of the classic reasons why organizations are continually experiencing breakdowns in upward communication. It is impossible to guarantee feedback in every piece of written communication. But written communication becomes two-way interaction only when feedback has taken place, Some of the ways in which feedback can be generated are by using cover sheets on memoranda that ask the reader to evaluate the course of action being remmened , by installing a telephone system whh enables reader to ask questions about a written document, and by chicking out the reader's reactions orally. These techniques do not guarantee feedback, but they do make it easier. As in all forms of communication, there is no one best way to write something, but rather a few ways that will probaly work well. This theme, too, shoud be familiar to you by now. We will only touch on it here. Some writers labor for hours over a single letter or memorandum attempting to get just the right phrase or word. While this perfectionism may be admirable, it is not efficient. It takes up too much time.. Writing is a matter of communication of getting information across simply and straightforwardly. If in fifteen minute you can write a memo that communicates the same ideas as your co-worker's memo that took two hours to write, then you are ahead in the game because you have an hour and 45 minutes to devote to other activities. Good writing in the organizational setting is a matter of trade-offs. You will have to trade off some of your concern for perfection against the utility of getting the message out quickly and clearly… Remember that the reader is facing just as many demands on his or her time as you are if not more. A good writers edit and refine their work until it transmits their main ideas clearly. Some writers fall int the trap of using technical words in a nontechnical context. These writers say interface for"meet," input for "giving ideas," and ramifications for "effect." Try to keep it simple. Good writer write in English, Not in jargon. The reader or employee should not have to search for the central idea. The point of yor message must be clear; the reader shoud not have to search for your main ideas. Two principles of journalistic wrintingare applicable to organizational writing because they enable us to express the main ideas clearly. The first principle is the concept of the lead paragraph. The first paragraph of a newspaper article must communicate six crucial pieces of information: What? Who? Where? When? How? Many books about communication consider only oral or only written interaction. Good communication in organization need both oral and written communication skills. Writing is a vital communication skill. Organizations typically develop volumes of written material every day to disseminate information downward as well as upward the mobility ladder within the organization The memorandum, the production report, the newsletter, the brochure all play a role in the organization's communication program. Characteristices of communication Communication is dynamic and ongoing, A famous communication theorist once said, "You can never not communicate." Although the statement might contain too many negatives to accommodate the English grammarian, it is indeed profound. The concept goes like this: Because we receive communication stimuli almost constantly from a wide variety of sources, the process of giving and receiving information is taking place constantly all around us. Think back to the time when you attended your last football game. The pageantry, the weather, the person you were (or ere not) attending the game with, the condition of the playing field, the quality of the hot dogs all probably influenced you as much as the football played down on the field. Information from thousands of events and combinations of events, both past and present, is processed by our cognitive structure. Purpose Communication , Communication helps people get what they want. It may help them to reach goals or to obtain social reinforcement, as we have seen. But people alson adjust to their environment and make sense out of their surroundings via communication. When we are cast into a new or different situation, we feel uncertain or confused at first. We begin to reduce this uncertainty through communication We interact with others, we seek out information to provide us with input about our new environment, and we think through our own background and experience to retrieve information that may be helpful to us now. Eventually. When all this information starts coming in, we begin to adjust and feel more comfortable in our surroundings. Social Communication As we try to bring some certainty to our environment, we begin to develop skills that enable us to interact with others. It is through this interaction that we reach others and enable others to reach us. Communication becomes the vehicle through with we test out our perceptions and ideas with others. In so doing, we learn whether our view of the world is consistent with the views of others. The old adages" Man is a social animal" and "Noman is an island" speak to the aspect of the human spirit. All of us need others. And this need is satisfied through communication. Complex Communication, We view the basics of survival water, food, and shelter as fairly simple, But communication is also basic to survival. Communication, however, is far form simple, primarily, because it is human beings who do the communicating. People make communication complex because people themselves are complex and involved in the process of sending and receiving vague information. People will hear not what was said, but what they think was said. Rarely will an individual convey completely objective information with out adding some element of the subjective. For these reasons communication con not be considered as exact science. The study of communication must eventually lead to the study of other aspects of human behavior. Such as personality, attitude, motivation, and learning What Does Communication Help Us Do Communication enables us to do certain things. It enable us to grow, to learn, to become cognizance or ourselves, and to adjust to our environment. When we can co thest things. We are on the road to good mental health. Growth We develop and grow by communication with other in our environment. And we occasionally change our environment using communication to help us grow in new surroundings. We gain this information about things. Places and other people through communication. As we internalize more ideas, we grow as people. Learning Closely related to individual growth is the process of learning. Learning, in this context, means the accumulation of information. Growth, on the other hand, involves the total personality of the individual. Almost all instructions utilize some form of communication. Cognitive We become aware of who we are primarily through communication.. People tell us thins about ourselves that we use to monitor our development as people. We gain input that tells us if we are successful in our behavior exchange with others. We develop a sense of our heritage and of our potential through communication. Who you are today is the product of thousands of communication exchanges that you have experienced throughtout you life. Procedures of Grievance The hearing of grievances is another type or managerial consultation. In many organizations, the grievance procedure is virtually the only channel through which the managers obtain information about morale, motivation, and conflict at lower levels of the organization. The settlement of grievances can be highly rewarding for both the manager and the organization, but it is intrinsically difficult and requires much more than simple goodwill. A grievance is a complaint plus a request for redress. All organizations are full of complaints openly expressed to peers and sometimes to outsiders, but relatively few of them turn into grievances by being attached to a request for redress. The non -directive interview that were part of the famous. Western Electric study collected eighty thousand complaints from workers in one industrial plant during a single year and classified them neatly into objectively verifiable complaints, subjective complaints, and non-logical complaints. The Western Electric investigators concluded that the underlying attitude of the complaints, subjective complaints, and illogical complaints, The Western Electric investigators concluded that the underlying attitude of the complainants toward their work and their associates was often more significant in accounting for complaints than the particular conditions complained of the mere opportunity to complain to a receptive listener connected with management had a favorable effect on morale, after telling that complaints to the interviewer, workers often perceived an improvement to the condition complained about even though no objective change had occurred. These effects have been confirmed in subsequent studies and used to organizational counseling programs. A particularly interesting factory study carried out to England by workers against their foremen could by dissolved by a patterned system of eliciting and discussing complaints without changing the behavior of the foremen in any way. How many of an organization's circulating complaints turn into active grievances depends upon their volume and intensity, the receptivity of management to grievances, its reputation for fairness, the attitudes of particular managers, and the presence or absence of third parties. A high grievance rate is always a bad sign, but an abnormally low grievance rate is suspicious. Rensis Likert, in his New Patterns of Management, presented statistical evidence to show that industrial workers who are hostile to the enterprise in which they work seldom submit grievances. The same study also showed that people at each level of management overestimate the extent to which their subordinates feel free to express grievances, giving themselves much higher marks for accessibility than they deserve, while rating their own superiors much lower than themselves in this respect. Well-run organizations have only a small number of grievances, and management reacts to them promptly and vigorously. Most of these grievances fall into a few simple categories that are part of every manager's experience. The most common grounds for grievances are quarrels between superiours and subordinates. Discrimination against an individual or a group, breaches of the organization's rules, and neglect of organizational duties. To handle grievances, you many establish an open-door policy whereby anyone in the organization can approach you with a grievance at any time, or authorize a walking delegate to bring you grievances on behalf of the ran-and file, or turn over all grievances to an internal tribunal. Some managers follow a closed-door policy, whereby grievances are referred back to lower levels of the organization or simply ignored. This latter policy, although widely practiced. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The genesis of the apartment management grew out of the first major social upheaval of the modern era. The place of the renters were opened to the public by the revolutionaries as a national living arena belonging to all the people of that society. In addition to the new society in America the louver became an attraction and influenced renters from around the world. One renter saw the advantage of renting opposed to buying. Most settlers were undecided as to where they wanted to call home, north, east and west. Many saw the new wave of living a means of as well as a vehicle for a better life of their own choosing. The new comers wanting very much to take advantage of their new found power (choice). To stimulate the nuclear-style of life, it is requisite that our public should have free access to move and choose as they wish. In addition, they had a choice of schools, church in which they wish to attend Unfortunately, fiancé was their biggest situation. However, because of financial distress the ability of the apartment way of living was to serve the public has not kept pace with the public's interest. This is in spite of the fact that apartment are the wealthiest form of American collecting institutions. As pointed out by owner It is something of a paradox, then, that the anguished circle of financial distress issue for the most part from nuclear living and a great number of families dividing as a result. Apartment complex averages a large amount of residual income. However, many apartment owner have had to dip into endowment capital. In city after city leading complex owner have been forced to foreclose due to insufficient fund. To curtail service, and to tighten rental condition. Mandatory or "suggested" entry fees have been increased. In order to move in to an apartment the rent is doubled plus other fees. The apartment industry's ability to serve the public has not kept pace with the public's interest because of what is called the extended family tradition. As pointed out by Alexander (1979, p. 20) and meyer. Rich and powerful gentlemen in America were the forces that created and maintained the nuclear family. Since these patrons of tradition were answerable only to their own conscience and task in managing organization, they had no doubt as to who was in charge of the rental while traveling to pursue other business deals, there were not question about qualification, and no need for concern about the maintenance of standards. Finances for running the complex were derived simply from personal wealth. The staff in turn had little if any managerial training, particularly in personnel relations, or dealing with difference personalities. Administration and money management however, according most of the owners are in the process of seeking new forms of governance, a process which will affect their traditional foundation, purpose and meaning. This evolving process has been made necessary because of the change in the social, political. And financial context in which apartment complex exist today. As individual wealth, power, and privilege have given way to new divisions of social responsibility between individual and the state, the tradition of personal administrative dictatorship and the consent which made it possible have been eroded. Many maintained that big apartment complex now rely on, to a great extent on public support. First and farmost, these complexes must new managers trained in administration who are open to the scrutiny of an educational background check. In order to have more room for discretionary action, the directorate… tries to isolate the apartment business as far as possible from market or commercial valuations. Application of specialized noncommercial standards helps to minimize the attacks coming from outside, since it makes it very difficult for ordinary renters. Communication Building a Consensus The manager's task of holding the organization together requires an adequate flow of information upward and downward, and inward and outward. The adequacy of this information flow is measured by the consensus that results from it; that is, the extent to which members of the organization come to agree about the organization's goals. With high consensus, an organization will have few quarrels; with intermediate consensus, there will be many quarrels., but most of them will be resolved or contained; with low consensus, there will be frequent and severe conflicts and any one of them may turn into a disaster. Communication and consensus are intimately related, but the relationship is too complex to be reduced to the simple formula. On the one hand, the improvement of consensus ordinarily requires increased communication. On the other hand, an increase in the flow of information between two parts of an organization con undermine an existing consensus. Every organization can be analyzed as a communication network. The analyxis of the multiple factors that affect the efficiency of a communication network such as physical distance, social distance, commonality of language, extraneous noise, authentication, and circuit design is always interesting. The practical problems of communication that every active manager must face present themselves in simpler form. The questions you might ask yourself look like this: A. How can the routine reqorts I receive about the organization's activities be made more reliable, accurate, and comprehensive? B. With whom shuld I consult before making decisions? Who should I inform about decisions after they are made. C. What information do I need to keep secret? how? D. How much attention should I give to rumormorgers and tal bearears? What use, if any, should I make of spies? E. How should I go about repairing or replacing parts of the communications network that have broken down? F. How can I make my nonverbal gestures mean what I want them to mean to the organizational audience? In actual experience, these six questions and their answers are inextricably entwind, but for purposes of discussion it is convenient to consider them separately. Routine Reports The easiest way to make your mark as a manager is to improve the quality of the routine reports the organization produces hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually; in written, graphic, or numerical form about its ongoing activities. This is often quite easy to do, because there are very few people who grasp the importance of routine reporting and even fewer who understand how to set up appropriate reporting procedures. Systims of routine reporting deteriorate in use, so that even the best system neens to be reformed from time to time. The first step in setting up or reforming a system of routine reports is to determine priorities, Top-priority reports are those that claim attention as soon as they appear. Middle-priority reports are needed for occasional reference. Low-priority reports refer to matters that do not ordinariloy require action. A good deal of care, and as much expense as necessary, outht to be lavished on the production of top-priority reports, It goist without saying that reports in this category should be as prompt, accurate. And complete as is humanly possible. And that they should be in a form that permits comparison with other organizations. With past performance, and with projected achievements. As usual, it may be helpful to visualize a concrete case. Let us use a public high school for this purpose and assume that you are the principal. The most important routine report that comes to your desk is the daily attendance report (see Figure 1 ) ought to provide a summary absenteeism rate for the entire school and the corresponding rates for yesterday, last week, and a year ago. If records of lateness are kept, you might be tempted to add a comparable summart of lateness to the daily attendance report, but unless lateness has some special local significance. The temptation should be resisted. Lateness and ablenteeism are both good (negative) indicators of morale, but they are so closely related that only the absenteeism rate need be calculated. For both the producers and the users of routine report, it is nealy as important to keep superfluous information out as to get essential information in. By the way, when computers are used, this is much harder to do. Let us assume that school begins every morning at 8:30. The daily attendance report, preferably on a single sheet of paper, come to you by 9:30. Like most top-priority reports, it has multiple functions. If the report is usually on time and complete, you are likely to take its accuracy for granted after a while. But you ought not to do so since, in the first place, reports of human behavior are inherently fallible and, in the second place, systems of routine reporting tent to deteriorate. You must remind yourself to verify the information in the daily attendance report from time to time and to raise a terrible fuss whenever you find an error. The enumeration of absentees can be verified by going to a classroom and comparing the number of students physically present with the number listed as present. The total number present and absent in a given category can be compared with the number of names on the official roster The arithmetric of totals and percentages can be verified by calculation, The figures for yesterday or loast year may be checked against yesterday's or last year's reports in the files. it=picking procedures like thesewill not only help to keep the report trustworthy, they will also uncover anomalous and irregular situations of which you, the principal, should be aware. Weekly reporting is relatively unimportant in a school; school weeks are of uneven length because of holidays. Recesses, examinations, and other special events, Months are more significant. The principal's top-priority reports will certainly include a monthly attendance report; a monthly financial report that tells you where you are running ahead of or behind the budget; a utilities report summarazation the school's consumption of electricity, and telephone service asumption; and an inventory report, showing supplies on hand. Unless this last report is carefully made and the movement of supplies in and out is just as carefully verified, pilferage is certain to flourish. You may well feel that your attention should be given to profound educational issues, but unless you are willing to endure the demoralization that accompanies waste and stealing, you had better give the utilities and inventory reports your full attention when they come to you. The other significant reporting periods for a high school are the school term and the school year. Some reports are prepared both for the term and for the year; others for the year only. Just as the daily report generates a monthly report, so each monthly report generates a term report and an annual report. Some important reports are solely annual; for example. An academic achievement report, which shows the average grades assigned to students by level and subject, the average scores obtained by the students on standard achievement tests, the ration of successful grade completions to the entering population of each grade, and the number of college applications and acceptances for the graduation class. This report, although complicated in appearance, is essential; without it, the school would fly blind. We have lingered some time in the high school principal's office in order to show you how numerous and diverse are the minimun elements of information you need to do this job in a rational way. Most high schools do not have as good a system of routine reporting as the one outlined above. Instead, the principal receives a great volume of middle-and low-priority information that ought to stop lower down in the organization or not be gathered at all. Even a superficial analysis of the flow of paper in most high schools and other organization will show people filling out forms in quintuplicate when one copy would be amply sufficient, keeping elaborate records for no purposes, obtaining redundant approval for routine actions, or preparing periodic reports that no one ever sees. It is only by pruning the overgrowth of red tape that the flowers of useful information can be made to grow. In another type of organization, the routine reports that come to a manager might be more analytical and less descriptive. For example, and old study of the organizational performance of insurance agencies by Seashore and Yuchtman at the University of Michigan refers to such variables reported to agency managers as production costs per thousand dollars of insurance carried, maintenance costs per hundred dollars of premium collected, number of lives covered per one thousand insurables in the population, and so on for a total of seventy-six numerical indicators. Curiously, howver, the total volume of informantion required for effective management does not seem to vary in proportion to the size or complexity of the organization, if only because the ability of a single mind to absorb and remember information is limited. The larger the organization, the more severlymust information be sifted and screened before it reaches the top. What happens then is pretty much the same in all well-run organizations: the report is scanned and its main outlines are remembered; occasionally some item stimulates further action. Consultation is an Art One of the most common managerial errors is the failure to consult someone who is entitled to be consulted about a particular matter. Just as it is said to be impossible to finish a sailboat race without making at least a few errors of judgment, so it is probably impossible to manage an organization without making some errors in consultation, but success usually goes to the skipper with the fewest errors. The reason the art of consultation is so difficult is that it involves actions that run counter to the normal impulses of a good manager. Consultation interposes delays between the formulation and the excecution of a project, elicits foolish and irrelevant objections, and leads to modifications that tarnish the original luster of the thing. Consultation with line-workers or fellow employees often feels uncomfortable. The manager has a sense of going hat in hand to beg or buy support he could as easily command. But nine times out of ten it will be better to suffer the discomfort of full consultation than to omit any part of it. The most essential persons to be consulted in advance of a manaerial decision are the subordinate managers and staff advisers and rank-and-file workers who will have to carry it out. The desirability of consulting those who are directly affected is self-evident; they are likely to have vital information about whether and how the decision can be implemented. Managers who don't get that information in advance are likely to make foos of themselves whenever they issue a directive, like the engineering executives in the machine shop studied by Donald Roy who periodically introduced new procedures that crippled production until the workmen evolved methods of circumventing them. But getting advice is only one of the twin purposes of consultation. The other and equally important purpose is to elicit consent. People are much more likely to support a decision they helped to make, or think they helped to make, than to support a decision imposed on them from above. This magic is so powerful that even an illusory participation in the making of a decision is often sufficient to secure the support of those who would otherwise oppose it. It is possible to devise a tricks that make use of this effect, for example, by putting obvious mistakes and defects into a proposal so that the people consulted will find it easy to make suggestions for improvement and to ascertain later that their suggestions have been followed. Even without such conniving. When the opponents of a project are seriously consulted and induced to participate in the planning stage, they often are irresistibly drawn toward the project despite their initial opposition. Like most magic spells, this one can turn upon its user. The manager who seeks advice need not take it, but you must never seem to despise it. Hell hath no fury like a consultant scorned. To consult all the subordinate managers and statt advisers directly affected is a more delicate operation. This sort of consultation runs the risk of arousing opposition in quarters where neither support nor opposition were called for. Nevertheless, because the indiredt effects of decisions are so significant as when the decision to expand one department of an organization is perceived as punitive by department that are not expanded the need for advice and consent often extends for beyond that part of an organization which seems to be directly concerned. A skillful manager will extend the consultation process as part as possible without creating needless problems, which is generally a good bit further than you natural inclination would take you. There are several special types of consultation that call for some modification of the foregoing principles. Among these are consultation with committess, grievance procedures, consultation with outside experts, and consultation with the rank-and-file. Committees Consulting The great comic therorist of organization, Professor Parkinson, once suggested a formal study of committees to be know as "commitology." And mentioned in passing the fact that the world committee was originally singular and denoted a peron appointed to represent the legal interests of a lunatic. The phenomenon is much older and wider than the word, however. Every organization. Even a street-corner gang. Seems to generate some committees. Large organizations have thousands of committees, with all sorts of administrative, judicial, and technical functions. We will confine our attention here to committees designed primarily for consultation. Within this category there are standing committees, special committess, and ad hoc committees. The universal annoyance with committees is partly explained by the fact that that so many committee meetings are occupied with business that is of little interest to the members. But from you standpoint as a manager, no meeting of a committee within your jurisdiction is really dull, The committee is an instrument that serves your interests much more than the interests of other members, no matter how democratic and egalitarian its proceedings may be. Although commitology is not likely to become a recognized social science, there have been several excellent studies of how committees operate andwhat factors influence them for example, the laboratory studies of Harold Guetzkow and of james david barber. And the observational studies of Richard f. fenno. Jr.. The finding of these studies, taken together, suggest that committees with organizational tasks work best under a strong chairman who poses many questions, speaks more to the whole group than to individuals, defines the issues keeps the discussion on its track. Relates the amount of discussion to the available time, and endeavors to arrive at group decisions. "There is a general expectation" Writes Berkowitz in summarizing his study of seventy-two committees in business, industry and government, "that the so call designated leader, the chairman, should be the sole major behavioral leader." He goes on to say that the sharing of leadership by other members seems to leave the members of a committee dissatisfied with each other and with their deliberations, regardless of whether the committee members who share leadership with chairman are supporters or opponents. The empirical studies also seem to agree that successful chairmen do not attempt to prevent expression of opposing viewpoints or to force a consensus prematurely.. Several studies show that strong chairmen are better liked by their committees than passive chairmen, but also show that chairmen who are outranked by the member of their committees are likely to be passive. These research results stand in apparent contradition to what is sometimes called "sensitivity traning." A method whereby people in large organizations are taught sensitivity in human relations as a means of developing "interpersonal competence.: The formula for a successful sensitivity training group is nearly the opposite of the formula for a successful committee. The triaing group works bes with a passive, Permissive leader who makes no attempt to hold discussions to a fixed agenda or a definite time schedule, but encourages digressions that reveal the hidden emotions of the participants. This approach makes sense in its own context, whch is closely related to group therapy, and the people who are sent by large organizations to participate in such training for examplel, the government officials who attend the Federal Executive Institute in Charlottesville, Virginia usually find the experience pleasant and educational.. But those enthusiansts who attempt to impose the style of the training group on working committees in large organizations merely sow confusion. How to Appoint Committees. A standing committee is a body with a continuous responsibility that calls for collective rather than individual judgment for example, the rules committee of a legislature, the admissions committee of a college, the loan committee of a bank. As a rule of thumb, a standing committee should have a minimum of five members and a maximun of perhaps nine, although, of course, there are justifiable exceptions. The reason for the minimun of five is that it implies a working majority of three, which represents about as narrow a spread of collective judgment as con suffice in a situation that calls for collective judgment. The maximum of nine is a less rigid limit, but since most standing committees must meet regularly without the stimulus of an emergency, the difficulty of scheduling meetings for a larger number of people suggests and upper limit in this neighborhood unless the business of the committee is so overwhelmingly important that none of its members is likely to develop conflicting obligations. As the manager of an organization, you ought never to appoint yourself as chairman of a standing committee. By doing so, you would defeat the purposes of such a committee, which are to relieve you of administrative burdens and to substitute a collective judgment for your individual judgment in certain recurrent, non critical situations, It is usually a good idea, however, for you to be and ex officio member of any standing committee within your jurisdiction so as to have easy access to its deliberations and records when matters in which you are especially interested are considered The chairmen of standing committees outh to be senior to most the other members, if only because they have to allocate work to them from time to time. They ought not have to hold extreme opinions with respect to the area of interest. Or be too new to the organization to understand its informal norms. The membership of a standing committee should be as broadly representative as its size permits, with regard to organization rank, personal characteristics, and factional affiliations. It takes teamwork to to run an effective organization therefore, committees and consultants are vital to a thriving organizational infra structure. Teamwork Theneedforteamwork has long been a part of American cultural lore. We remember the great teams like the 1927 New York Yankees and the 1987 Los Angeles Lakers. Teamwork at the workplace, while considered important, has nto been stressed in management theory. We ususlly regard the wrokplace as an environment in which individual effort produces individual rewards, b the work of Professors change our thinking about the importance of teamwork on the job, Theory Z after a comprehensive study of the management practices being followed in Japan. While there are huge cultural differences between the United States and Japan. Americans have cometo respect the accomplishments of the Japanese in the worldwide industrial arena. After being defeated in World War11 Japan has risen to become the world's great exonomic leader. Japan's export-based economy dominates the world in everything from tape recorders to automobiles. The Japanese have been successful in competing in a world market even though their nation has few natural resources and must depend entirely on imported sources of energy. In my study, I found that one of the reasons for success in Japanese organizations to be the presence of high levels of trust and friendship among their worker. Further, in Japanese companies, employees seemed to enjoy working together in groups. In American organizations "work" starts at 9 A.M. and ends at 5 P.M. Most of us have one set of friends at work and another away from work, many organizations discourage close personal contact. For example, some organizations have policies against too much interaction at the work place; the assumption is that if people are talking, they must not be working. For most of us, vacations mean getting away from work and from those we work with. Fun and work are two phenomena not normally grouped within the American industrial culture. In viewing the basics of Japanese business, there are silgnificant differences between Japan and the United States in terms of these trust and friendship issues.. It is not uncommon in Japan for people who work together to establish close working and professional relationships. Managers and nonmanagers elect to spend their time away from work with each other. In Japan, spouses of workers are encouraged to associate with one another. Vacations are spent with people from the company, and the Japanese organization often assumes employee travel expenses. It is not uncommon for Japanese firms to charter airplanes for employees to travel to China. Hawaii, Australia and Europe for holiday periods, close contact with fellow worker, both at and away from work, creates conditions which employees learn to trust one another… From this trust comes close working relationships leading to a committee work group that contributes to the goals of the organizations. Two example of how teamwork functions at the work place. Case No. 1 Monica Williams works as a sales representative for the Greenville Company. Marketing computer software applications for small businesses in the Pacific Northwest, Charlie calls on the managers to keep members of the sales force competitive. Each company product carries a point total for the sales representative As one software package is sold it yields a specified number of points to the representative accumulated total. Certain packages carry more points the more sold. The greater the point total.. The representatives salary, assignment, and territory are based on the point total. Each month a summary of all the representative's points is sent to everyone in the company.. Each representative is able to compare how he or she is doing compared with all others. If a representative is on the bottom of the list for more than two months. He or she is sent a letter of concern." After more than six months at the bottom of the list, a termination letter is automatically sent. The system seems to be working since the company has been increasing sales at an annual rate of 25 percent for the last five years. Case No. 2 Williams Garage has developed a reputation as the best place in town to take your car for repair. Williams has designed a system whereby each mechanic shares in all of the profits from the garage. If one mechanic is not producing, another works with the low producer to see what the problem is. Workers are free to establish their own hours and elect their own lead mechanics who are responsible for assigning specific jobs. After work, most of the mechanics get together across the street at Harry's dine for beer and conversation. Often their wives join the group for dinner. If anything comes up and a formal meeting is called for, the whole group for dinner. If anything comes up and a formal meeting is called for. The whole group meets at the local bowling alley. Decisions are made pretty easily because the guys are usually eager to bowl a few frames after the meeting. There has been absolutely no turnover at the garage for the past four years. The output has increased each year. The garage has been so successful that all of the available time slots are filled with customers bringing in cars for repairs. Business is so good that the group is going to have to make a decision about taking on additional mechanics. The two cases provide a basis for understanding the concepts of trust and friendships. In the first case, Willie is and individual forced to survive in a competitive situation. He has few resources for emotional support, and must determine for himself what needs to be done each day on the job. In contrast to willie's work situation, the Williams Garage has been organized along the lines of the Japanese management model detailed in Theory Z. The mechanics who work in the garage are members of a that takes responsibility for its own management.. Neither model can be effective in all situations. Whether or not all American firms can be organized into teams is an important question. Japanese workers learn from their first day on the job to work as a team player. American do not. American firms must rethink how the how the workplce is organized. Many firms have integrated a policy of increased teamwork into their organizational structure, Whe an organization implements a quality circle or a decision-making group, it is to stimulate teamwork and improve the quality of the product. Communication and Teamwork Communication and increased teamwork are closely related. There are several characteristics of organizational communication that foster increased teamwork. 1. Communication in situations emphasizing teamwork tends to be open and flexible. This means that teamwork encourages frank and open discussions of members' ideas and contributions. Such discussions are based on the equal status of all team employees. 2. Communication is situations emphasizing teamwork is characterized by trust and friendship. Team employees have already built up good will and warmth among themselves. Work-related communication is based on mutual regard and honesty. 3. Communication in situations emphasizing teamwork is highly personal. Since the distinction between work and non work-related issues is blurred, people appear to be comfortable talking about a range of topics. Discussion of personal concerns is encouraged by other team employees. 4. Communication in situations emphasizing teamwork stresses cohesiveness. Since all team employees are working toward the same objective, the interaction builds cohesion among the employees The assumption is that each employee is equally important to the success of the the team. Most employees accept the notion that team success is more important than individual success. Taking Risk The book published by Peters and Waterman's has created much interest to many organizations. "In Search of Excellence. The book has stimulated a movemnt in U.S. organizations toward excellence. The book identified a number of companies in the United States that could be characterized as excellent through their style, climate, and performance. After examining many of their target companies, the authors developed a list of characteristics that could be used to identify excellent companies. Several of the characteristics from In Search of Excellence will be examined in this paper. The characteristic most helpful in differentiation these companies can be labeled "resk taking and an organizational bias for taking some form of action. " One of the criticisms leveled against traditional U.S. industry is that it is often stodgy and unwilling to risk innovative solutions to problems. It takes a large organization time to make decisions. Many levels of bureaucracy must be penetrated before actions and resources are committed to potention solution, These bureaucracies often require a decision to be made at one level but approved "up the chain-of-command' by four or five additional levels of management. A critical view of organizations argues that most would prefer to err on the side of inaction rather than risk failure in the marketplace or the publid arena. This has led to a sense that organizations are usually unimaginative, traditional, and conservative in solving problems. In contrast, excellent organizations are those that are willing to risk failure.. While there is always the risk of failure when companies do business in public, excellent organizations would rather take some kind of action than do nothing. They are willing to suffer the consequences of an idea not working. Perhaps, the most interesting example is the advertising campaign for Hewlett Packard (HP) focusing on "What if …" The point of the campaign is that HP is always willing to take a risk on a new idea to solve the customer's Problems. Let us again use two cases to differentiate between two organizations in terms of risk taking. Case No. 1 Townsend Foods has a reputation for being a conservative supermarket chain in Southern California. The firm's corporate philosophy is to emphasize upper-scale products in established suburban neighborhood locations. The firm has been making about 2 percent profit on its net investment each year. This profit margin has remained constant for the past six years. Recently, however, the company has noticed a decline in profits as the neighborhoods served by Townsend's 30 stores have gradually "aged." Most residents in their stores; neighborhoods have seen their children move away. As families become smaller, less food is bought. Thus, the customer base of Townsend has decreased noticeably. Townsend has continued to invest in store locations in white, suburban neighborhoods, ignoring the large minority population growth in other areas, Very few of Townsend's customers are minority and the company has usually not stocked products popular with minority groups. The demographics of Southern California are changing rapidly but the company has into developed a marketing plan to respond to these changing conditions. Case No. 2 Latah Foods determined several years ago that the growth areas of Southern California would be those populated by the state's escalation population of immigrants from Central and South America and Southwest Asia. These neighborhoods presented and unusual challenge for Latah. The company decided to build smaller, more locally based stores. Store managers are given the freedom to stock products of interest to specific to specific customers. Rather than continuing upper-scale products that appeal to suburban residents and urban professionals, Latah began to stock functional merchandise that can be purchased in bulk sizes. Each store has also been successful in stocking a variety ethnic products especially popular to immigrants. For example, stores in Asian Neighborhoods carry a wide range of Vietnamese and Cambodian products. Stores in Hispanic neighborhoods stock Mexican and El Salvadoran foods and spices. The biggest risk taken by Latah was changing the organization's image. Originally, the company was viewed as a solid competitor in the Southern California food business. It had a solid group of loyal customers. In the view of some analysts, the company's decision to focus on lower-and middle-class minority customers changed the prevailing perception of the organization, going from "traditional and solid" to different However, profits at Latah have been rising significantly each year. The company guessed right in all of its decisions. It is riding the crest of the phenomenal growth trends in California. Risk taking does not guarantee corporate success. U.S. corporate culture is full of organizations that took risks but failed miserably, Certainly, People Express, "the bring you won dinner airline," and Ford's decision to manufacture the Esel are part of our social history. Yet, the point remains: Excellent companies do seem willing to risk failure through a bias for taking action. Supervisory Freedom Managing the work and not the employees are the new wave of managing. Example of the One Minute Manager, Blanchard and Johnson argue that it is easy to be an effective manager. So easy, in fact, that a manager can be successful in time commitments as brief as one minute. The foundation of their approach is, that once an individual knows what the goals of the organization are and has the tools necessary to work toward those goals., there is no need for the supervisor to spend time managing the person. The control function of management is unnecessary because subordinates practice self-direction. Once the broad outline of the organization's directional plan has been established, there is little for the manager to do. While it is possible to criticize the approach as being simpli9stic, it does have great appeal. Deeply engrained in the U.S. view of management is the premise that the manager must monitor closely the activities of each subordinate. Unless people are watched they will "goof Off.' Some managers feel. But, The One Minute Manager is able to establish guidelines clearly so that subordinates can function within them. The two contrasting views can be illustrated in these cases. Cases No. 1 Marvin Sims works as the manager of the City way Bakery Shop. He supervises a staff of 25, which includes and assistant manager and several cooks, waitresses, and bus boys, The Bakery shop is open 24 hours a day and offers a wide-ranging inexpensive menu. While his assistant does relieve some of Allan's burdens, as manager, he works nearly 18 hours a day often coming to work on Sunday, his scheduled day off. Allan feels that his employees will 'screw up' if they are left on their own. Two years ago, a bus boy took 243 dollars from the cash register while Marvin was on vacation. He has blamed himself ever since, Also, several customers have complained that the quality and appearance of the food served deteriorates when the manager is not there. The problem, in Marvin's mind, is that no one can supervised his people better than he. The cooks, since they are the keys to whether or not people like the food, must be reminded about changes in the corporate menu that City follows as a franchise for a national chain. Marvin samples what comes off the grill to make sure the cooks have prepared the dishes appropriately.. Waitresses can be monitored easily. Marvin keeps count of the amount of time customers must wait for an ordered meal. If the wait is longer than 20 minutes, Marvin makes a point of reminding the waitresses about the company standard of serving food within 15 minutes of the time it is ordered. If a table remains covered with dirty dishes for more than ten minutes after someone has finished a meal, Marvin usually cleans the table himself. If the manager cleans a table, it is an automatic reprimand for the bus boy. There is no question that Marvin runs a "tight ship." Since he is always present in the Bakery, he keeps on top of every situation and heads off any potential problem before it escalates. His system works well with customers because the bakery shop has a solid group of loyal patrons. But Marvin often must replace staff because the bakery has a high turnover rate. Case No. 2 Robin Derlic is the coach of the Southwest State University Lady Stingray Basketball team. One of the nation's best women's basketball teams. Robin has had great success a Southwest State since becoming the coach six years ago. Her teams have won 127 games, while losing lonely 27. Last year's team went to the Final Four after going 25-2 during the regular season. Robin success is related to her ability to hire outstand ing assistant coaches She finds eager, talented people and lets them do their job with little direct supervision. She has one assistant who is an outstand recruiter of high school prospects, another who is an excellent defensive coach and game strategist, and another who handles the team's administrative needs, such as travel arrangements and scheduling. In addition, her secretary takes care of Robin's correspondence and paperwork, Because details are handled by others, Robin has free time to give a number of talks in the community about the Northwest State program, She is more relaxed than the typical coach it the frantic world of college sports, She comes into the office at about 11:00 A.M. and leaves after the 4:30 P.M. practice. She will occasionally make a trip to talk to a high school prospect but leaves most of the recruiting to her assistant. Game preparations are handled by another assistant. Even game substitutions and half time pep talks are assigned to an assistant. At the beginning of each season, Robin establishes five goals for the year. Normally, the goals are the same each year. 1. The team's academic grade point average must be above 2.8 2. Each senior player must graduate with her class. 3. The program must recruit four high school players who meet Southwest State's playing and academic standards. 4. Each player must show improvement during the season as both a player and student. 5. The team must win 20 games during the season. These goals are straightforward and easy to follow. Assistant coaches and the members of the team. Robin assumes, are mature, talented people who do not need to be hounded into compliance they did not want to be part of the basketball program they would not be there. The management style has worked remarkably well, For each of her six years, every goal has been surpassed. Her major problem has been that she has had trouble holding on to her assistant coaches. They seem to be attractive candidates for vacant head coaching positions at other universities. When a coach wants to interview for another position. Robin is her biggest supporter. She will go so far as to telephone her recommendation to the selection committee at the university in question. Her assistants know that when the time comes for them to move up, Robin takes great pride in making it easy for them. In fact, former assistants are now head coaches at 15 universities, When an assistant meoves on, Robin is usually swamped with applications from coaches who want to become her assistant. Her approach has been to select the best young assistant and train her in the Southwest State system. After a year or two, the new assistant is working in the system like a old-timer. What The One Minute Manager has taught us is that the term " manage" does not necessarily imply "direction." As managers, we often over manage. Effective management may not require close monitoring of people. The key for the successful one-minute manager is goal clarity. Only when we know where the organization is going, can we work effectively within the organization. The one-minute manager establishes goals and encourages subordinates to work toward them. People are the organization. If individuals or groups are left to launch out on their own, starting with their strengths the organization will more than likely to be a success. Therefore, those of us who have studies organizations often fall into the trap of thinking of them as living organisms. Organizations do have dynamic, life-like characteristics. But ultimately, as we have suggested in this paper, they are the products of the people who occupy positions in them. The Peters and Waterman study of excellent companies did much to remind us of the role of people in insuring the success of the organization. According to Peters and Waterman, excellent organizations recognize that the success of the enterprise depends on the success of people, Not only do excellent companies accept the value of the individual, they go the extremes to insure that productive worker are recognizec. The one Minute Manager makes a similar point with the premise that praise of the individual is one of the keys to management success. Organizations have made progress in their efforts to recognize employees, Early efforts to build employee gymnasiums, to provide college scholarships for workers seeking self-improvement, and to provide bonus and profit-sharing programs were intended to send a message to the employees that they important. Obviously, there are solid reasons to hold on to good employees. Training new employees is costly. Turnover causes loss of productivity. Changing the composition of the work force alters the human mix in the organization, something to be especially avoided when the organization is doing well. But beyond the obvious benefits of and experienced, well-trained work force. Subtle advantage accrue from experience as well. Organizations undergoing change or those in the midst of volatile competitive situations must have a work force that can respond to challenges. New employees, without seasoning cannot function effectively in complex, changing environments. The idea that excellent people make excellent organizations has come to be widely accepted. Given this, the question arises: How can an organization develop a committed, competent, and loyal work force? One solution is to provide useful and regular feedback to employees about performance. All of us want to feel appreciated within our organization. We want an occasional pat on the back. We want to feel that our job is important. A paycheck is one way to reward employees. However, recognition and feedback can be equally important in creating a loyal work force. In one consulting situation the author was told about a supervisor who was expected to talk to his staff about "career development" every six months Unfortunately, he did not mention the subject for nearly three years. People want to know how they are doing and want to be recognized when they are contributing, being told that we have an important role in the success of the organization can make a tremendous difference in our level of commitment. Good companies recognize good employees. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal messages often contain more information than verbal messages, and nonverbal communication by managers is particularly effective. Since you are more closely observed than other members of the organization, the messages implicit in your gestures, displays, and actions are more effectively transmitted. Because you have more freedom of movement within the organization's territory and more autonomy in arranging the personal space around you, you have, in effect, a larger nonverbal vocabulary then other people. Your responsibility for conduction organizational rituals requires others to imitate you, and you can also specify gestures, displays, and actions in which you may not be imitated. This last sounds maor abstruse than it is. In most organizations, the manager's salary cannot be matched or exceeded by any other salary; on the other hand, the manager who sets his own salary imposes an upper limit on all salaries paid by the organization. The size and furnishings of your office, the cost of your official car, the length of your vacation, and the extent of your outside affiliations are all like to have the similar effect of setting limits to the pretensions of your subordinates. It is almost impossible to enumerate all the ways in which nonverbal messages can be conveyed, but the most important media include spatial arrangements, movements from one place to another, appearances and nonappearances a ceremonies, allotments of time, security measures, sociability patterns, personal gestures, and costumes, The variety of these media make nonverbal communication highly entertaining for those involve , but there is always some danger of being misunderstood or of showing more than one wants to tell. Lit would be laborious to look at each type of nonverbal expression separately, but we can get a pretty good idea of how they work by examining a few types from the standpoint of the manager who understands their possibilities. Expressive Movement in Organizations The study of expressive movements, body placement, gestures, and other body sighs ought to be practice by every manager of an organization, Excluded from full participation in the grapevine and with little information about the private sentiments of subordinates, you must often rely on your unaided observation to discover what everybody esse in the organization already knows. On the other hand, you have exceptional opportunities for observation because you see so many people and are able to choose the setting in which you will see them. Consider the opportunities for observation in the routine conference a manager might hold with sex or seven subordinates, The order of arrival is significant. Early arrival generally signifies eagerness to participate. And lateness or absence usually indicates some reluctance connected with the business at hand, or some mistrust of the other participants. People who arrive together and deep in conversation are either announcing a coalition or concealing a quarrel. The selection of seats is significant. Even in a meeting with fixed seating arrangements, small variations a place skipped, a chair shoved to one side or the other are significant. People who crowd close to the chairman are likely to be seeking his or her support, Those who isolate themselves at the other end of the table may be girding for battle. A real fight, as distinct from a difference of opinion, usually aligns people into visible factions. Positions at the end of a long table or in the middle of a side table are taken by people who intend to participate actively. while the corners are occupied by those who want to remain inconspicuous. Over a period of some years I attended business conferences in room with an oval table and an equal number of black chairs and white chairs. There was a feeble standing joke about the good guys sitting in white chairs and the bad guys in black chairs but, juke or not, several odd little customers developed out of the necessity for each participant to choose a black or a white chair at the beginning of each meeting. The white chairs came to be associated with optimism, growth, and good news; the black chairs with disapproval, reorganization, and financial stringency. In this way, participants signaled in advance the general tone of their contribution to a particular meeting. People on the same side of a controversial issue were likely to choose like-colored chairs. The occasional efforts of individuals to adopt one color or the other permanently and thus avoid the choice were detected by the other participants and subjected to the kind of pointed joking by which violations of etiquette are corrected. Expressive movements such as gestures, smiles and frowns, the placement of arms and legs, seated posture, fiddling and doodling, scratching and yawning, crossed glances, looking toward or away from a speaker, tones of voice, and the length and character of silences, serve in any meeting to amplify and clarify what is said and may indeed be more informative than any of the words spoken. The first thing for you to do as manager in a conference is to look and to listen. If these demanding activities keep you from talking as much as you would like, so much the better. How to Recognize Effective Communication The volume of communication and the degree of consensus required differ from one type of organization to another, but if and when you achieve effective communication, you will observe that 1. The routine operational reposts that reach you are seldom late and never falsified. 2. When you ask for a special report on some phase of the organizational program, you are never told that the information exists but cannot be assembled without excessive trouble or expense. 3. Your own formulations of organizational policies and problems are often repeated back to you by other people. 4. You seldom find yourself in disagreement with the priorities assigned to problems by your subordinates. 5. You are usually comfortable at meetings and conferences within the organization, whether you preside or attend as a visitor. 6. When you engage in consultation about a problem, you invariable learn new and important things, but they are not the kind of new things that make you change your whole picture of the organization. 7. When you make an important decision, the grapevine carries the news throughout the organization before an official announcement can be made. 8. The public speeches and actions of your subordinates seldom embarrass you. 9. Your subordinates often suggest a plan you have been turning over in your mind, or install a new procedure you have been about to suggest. 10. There are many things going on in the organization that you know nothing about, but they do not make you apprehensive. 11. The relatively few grievances that come to you can be promptly and vigorously handled without disrupting the organization. 12. You have very few secrets, and those you have can be safely confided to your close associates. 13. You have no regular talebearers at lower levels of the organization, and do not want any. 14. There is no part of the organization from which you cannot obtain routine communications or which fail to respond to you routine communications. 15. Misunderstandings and mistakes in communication between yourself and various parts of the organization occur quite frequently, but do not stay undetected. MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES Chapter 1 What an Organization Is An organization is a social system established to carry out a purpose. It consists of a number of people in a pattern of relationships. The pattern is not entirely dependent on a particular person who belong to the organization at a given time. The organization assigns a position to each of its members, and the incumbent of a position has a set part to play in the organization's concert. Every organization has a program and a set of planned activities that can go well or badly. If they consistently go well, the organization thrives. If theygo badly, it disappears or is restructured for another try. The manager of an organization is the person who has the primary responsibility for making its activities go well. An organization a program always involves considerably more than one central activity. Whether the central activity is a production process, a game, a fight or a ceremony, the organization must also maintain its internal structure, keep its employees happy, and adapt to changes in the external environment. In addition, the manager of any organization has a personal problem of establishing authority, In discussing problems, we will view the situation first, since unless the manager can keep the right to manage, the other parts of the managerial assignment quickly become irrelevant. The first chapter is about understanding Organizations and their synergistic affect on one another. It does the organization little good, however, for the manager to establish authority unless that authority is used to hold the organization together and achieve its purposes. Holding the organization together does not imply that all employees of the organization will have identical goals and agree about how to achieve them, but it does require them to agree sufficiently for the organization to pursue its collective goals in a unified way. This limited agreement results from continuous communication up. Down, and sideways within the organization. Most of this communication foows through established channels, formal or informal, and is modified in predictable ways by these channels. All this is discussed in the second chapter, "Communication." However, communication is not an end in itself. It is a means of getting the organization's job done, which is of course, what management is all about. A manager is someone who supervises the work of others and can, by his or her own actions, increase or diminish their productivity. In practice, there are two quite different modes of supervision direct and indirect, and they call for somewhat different strategies. In addition to the problem of routine supervision, there are all sorts of special problems that appear in any division of labor and interfere with the efficiency or the effictiveness of a work group. These situations are considered in the productivity area. The belief that productivity and morale are necessarily correlated is part of the folklore of organization. Like most folklore, it contains a grain of truth, Sudden increases in productivity are likely to stimulate short-ter improvements of morale, and vice versa. But the general relationship between productivity and morale is more complex. As empirical studies in diverse types of organization have shown, high morale often accompanies low productivity, and crises of morale may be brought about by rising productivity. There is always some significant relationship be tween the output of and organization and emotions of its members, but the relationship is for too intricate to suggest that productivity and morale are interchangeable. The managerial policies that sustain morale are decribed in "Morale." No organization, however limited its goals, can safely ignore the larger social systems from which it draws its people and its resources. Every organization endeavors to control the external environment, but no matter how large, rich, or sacred it becomes, it cannot develop any real immunity to changes in the external environment. Some of these external changes are attributable to the organization's own activities; some results from long-term trends and can be anticipated in a general way; some are so surprising that they cannot be imagined until they have actually occurred. In a complex, modern society, this last category is nearly inexhaustible. The unanticipated effects of legislation, technology, political upheavals, moral fashions, migration and other forms of mobility; innovations in transportation communication, entertainment; the movement of prices, and the fluctuation of scarcities now guarantee a fairly adventurous history to even the most insulated and reclusive organizations, such as craft union and boarding schools. The problems that arise s this way cannot be as neatly resolved as some of those discussed other arenas. Management Principles All human organizations resemble each other so closely that much of what is learned by managing one organization can be applied to managing any other organization. Every organization, for example, has a collective identity; a roster of employees, friends, and antagonists; a program activity and a schedule time to go with it ; a table or organization; a set of formal rules partly contradicted by informal rules; procedures for adding and removing members; utilitarian objects used for organizational tasks; symbolic objects used in organizational rituals; a history; a special vocabulary; some elements of folklore; a territory; and a method of placing members within that territory according to their relative importance. Every organization has a division of labor that allocates specialized tasks to it members and a status order that awards them unequal shares of authority, honor, and influence. Every organization except the very smallest is a cluster of sub-organizations of varying sizes, which are organizations in their own right and have all of the features stated above. Some sub-organizations are departments of the parent organization; some are illegitimate factions of it; some are formally independent of it, like a union local in a factory or attached to it temporarily, like an orchestra hired for a club dance. The important thing to remember about sub-organizations is that their goals are never completely compatible with the goals of the parent organization. It is seldom possible to reform a sub-organization for the benefit of the parent organization without encountering resistance. On the other hand, it is quite impossible to manage a large organization without occasionall offendin, damaging, or destroying some of its sub-organizations. The probles of managing a large organization are similar to the problems of managing a large organization are similar to the problems of managing a small or medium-sized organization, if only because every large organization is run by a managerial oligarchy which is itself a small organization ther is no other way to do it. Problems of communication, data retrieval, and public relations are necessarily more complex in a large organization, but there are more people to help with them too. Running a large organization should not require more of your time and effort than running a small organization. If it does, something is probably wrong with the way your job is set up or with you personal style. During any given interval in an organization's history, it will be growing, stable, or declining. Some organizations. Such as business corporations, normally strive for growth but do not always achieve it. Somne, such as exclusive clubs, attempt to avoid either growth or decline. Other, such as legislatures and baseball teams, have a fexed numer of member although the number of assistants and and supernumeraries can vary. Sill other, such as social movements past their peak, continue to operate for long periods of time while decling in size. The task of management is easiest in a growing organization because growth itself whatever its real cause is usually viewed as a sign of managerial success and because the input of new resources occasioned by growth can be used to pay for mistakes. Managing a stable organization is a more difficult task and calls for a finer adjustment of means and ends. Careful decision-making, and alertness to the external environment. The management of a declinging organization may be easy or hare, depending upon whether the decline is regarded as inevitable. In the face of an inevitable decline, standards of managerial performance may be low. In the case of a decline that is regarded as reversible, the task of the manager is always difficult and sometimes impossible. Most organizations find it harder to satify one of their goal than others, for reason beyond their control, When this is the case, the manager's success with the critical goal is the thing that matters, while the achievement of other goals is overlooked or taken for granted. Maintaining authority is critical, for example, in a prison or penitentiary; maintaining employees is what counts in a civic association; as director of a summer camp you are judged almost exclusively by whether you can keep up morale; as coach of a football team that can win all its games you need not worry about much else. Every type of organization tends to develop managers who are overspecialized in the accomplishment of one assignment and who minimize their their other responsigilities until this neglect catches up with them in the shape of rebellion, schism, bankruptcy, or reform by outsiders.. Many organizations develop crises is a situation in which the priorities of management are forcibly rearranged by some unforeseen combination of circumstances. The qualities that you, as manager, are called upon to display in a crisis may be quite different from those routinely required. Our system is build up of many micro situation that mushroom into macro situation: College presidents are called on for personal courage, prison wardens are